According to Freud, an individuals personality is made up of what three components?
Chapter 12. Personality
12.two The Origins of Personality
Learning Objectives
- Draw the strengths and limitations of the psychodynamic approach to explaining personality.
- Summarize the accomplishments of the neo-Freudians.
- Identify the major contributions of the humanistic approach to understanding personality.
Although measures such equally the Big 5 and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) are able to effectively assess personality, they do non say much about where personality comes from. In this section we will consider 2 major theories of the origin of personality: psychodynamic and humanistic approaches.
Psychodynamic Theories of Personality: The Role of the Unconscious
One of the most important psychological approaches to understanding personality is based on the theorizing of the Austrian doctor and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), who founded what today is known as the psychodynamic approach,an approach to understanding man behaviour that focuses on the office of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. Many people know about Freud because his piece of work has had a huge impact on our everyday thinking well-nigh psychology, and the psychodynamic approach is one of the almost important approaches to psychological therapy (Roudinesco, 2003; Taylor, 2009). Freud is probably the best known of all psychologists, in office because of his impressive observation and analyses of personality (there are 24 volumes of his writings). As is true of all theories, many of Freud'south ingenious ideas have turned out to exist at least partially incorrect, and yet other aspects of his theories are still influencing psychology.
Freud was influenced by the work of the French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893), who had been interviewing patients (about all women) who were experiencing what was at the time known as hysteria. Although information technology is no longer used to draw a psychological disorder, hysteria at the fourth dimension referred to a set of personality and concrete symptoms that included chronic hurting, fainting, seizures, and paralysis.
Charcot could find no biological reason for the symptoms. For instance, some women experienced a loss of feeling in their hands and still non in their arms, and this seemed impossible given that the nerves in the arms are the same every bit those in the hands. Charcot was experimenting with the employ of hypnosis, and he and Freud found that under hypnosis many of the hysterical patients reported having experienced a traumatic sexual experience, such every bit sexual abuse, as children (Dolnick, 1998).
Freud and Charcot also found that during hypnosis the remembering of the trauma was frequently accompanied past an outpouring of emotion, known as catharsis, and that post-obit the catharsis the patient's symptoms were oftentimes reduced in severity. These observations led Freud and Charcot to conclude that these disorders were acquired by psychological rather than physiological factors.
Freud used the observations that he and Charcot had made to develop his theory regarding the sources of personality and behaviour, and his insights are fundamental to the fundamental themes of psychology. In terms of gratuitous will, Freud did not believe that we were able to control our own behaviours. Rather, he believed that all behaviours are predetermined by motivations that prevarication outside our sensation, in the unconscious. These forces testify themselves in our dreams, in neurotic symptoms such every bit obsessions, while we are nether hypnosis, and in Freudian "slips of the tongue" in which people reveal their unconscious desires in linguistic communication. Freud argued that nosotros rarely understand why we exercise what nosotros exercise, although we tin make upwards explanations for our behaviours later on the fact. For Freud the listen was like an iceberg, with the many motivations of the unconscious being much larger, only as well out of sight, in comparison to the consciousness of which we are aware (Effigy 12.vii, "Heed every bit Iceberg").
Id, Ego, and Superego
Freud proposed that the mind is divided into three components: id, ego, and superego, and that the interactions and conflicts amid the components create personality (Freud, 1923/1949). According to Freudian theory, the id is the component of personality that forms the basis of our most primitive impulses. The id is entirely unconscious, and information technology drives our most important motivations, including the sexual drive (libido) and the aggressive or destructive drive (Thanatos). According to Freud, the id is driven by the pleasure principle—the desire for immediate gratification of our sexual and aggressive urges. The id is why we smoke cigarettes, potable alcohol, view pornography, tell hateful jokes most people, and appoint in other fun or harmful behaviours, often at the cost of doing more productive activities.
In stark contrast to the id, the superego represents our sense of morality and oughts. The superego tell usa all the things that nosotros shouldn't exercise, or the duties and obligations of society. The superego strives for perfection, and when we fail to live up to its demands we experience guilty.
In contrast to the id, which is nearly the pleasure principle, the function of the ego is based on the reality principle—the idea that nosotros must delay gratification of our basic motivations until the advisable time with the advisable outlet. The ego is the largely conscious controller or determination-maker of personality. The ego serves as the intermediary betwixt the desires of the id and the constraints of society independent in the superego (Figure 12.8, "Ego, Id, and Superego in Interaction"). We may wish to scream, yell, or hit, and all the same our ego normally tells us to expect, reverberate, and choose a more than appropriate response.
Freud believed that psychological disorders, and particularly the experience of anxiety, occur when at that place is conflict or imbalance among the motivations of the id, ego, and superego. When the ego finds that the id is pressing too difficult for immediate pleasure, information technology attempts to correct for this problem, ofttimes through the use of defence mechanisms—unconscious psychological strategies used to cope with anxiety and maintain a positive self-image. Freud believed that the defense mechanisms were essential for effective coping with everyday life, but that any of them could be overused (Table 12.iv, "The Major Freudian Defense Mechanisms").
| [Skip Tabular array] | ||
| Defence mechanism | Definition | Possible behavioural example |
|---|---|---|
| Displacement | Diverting threatening impulses away from the source of the anxiety and toward a more than acceptable source | A student who is angry at her professor for a depression course lashes out at her roommate, who is a safer target of her anger. |
| Projection | Disguising threatening impulses by attributing them to others | A human being with powerful unconscious sexual desires for women claims that women utilise him as a sex object. |
| Rationalization | Generating self-justifying explanations for our negative behaviours | A drama student convinces herself that getting the function in the play wasn't that of import after all. |
| Reaction germination | Making unacceptable motivations appear as their exact contrary | Jane is sexually attracted to friend Jake, but she claims in public that she intensely dislikes him. |
| Regression | Retreating to an before, more artless, and safer phase of development | A university student who is worried well-nigh an important exam begins to suck on his finger. |
| Repression (or denial) | Pushing anxiety-arousing thoughts into the unconscious | A person who witnesses his parents having sex is later unable to remember anything about the result. |
| Sublimation | Channeling unacceptable sexual or aggressive desires into acceptable activities | A person participates in sports to sublimate aggressive drives. A person creates music or fine art to sublimate sexual drives. |
The most controversial, and least scientifically valid, function of Freudian theory is its explanations of personality development. Freud argued that personality is adult through a series of psychosexual stages, each focusing on pleasure from a different part of the body (Table 12.v, "Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development"). Freud believed that sexuality begins in infancy, and that the advisable resolution of each stage has implications for after personality evolution.
| [Skip Table] | ||
| Phase | Judge ages | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Oral | Nativity to 18 months | Pleasure comes from the oral cavity in the class of sucking, bitter, and chewing. |
| Anal | xviii months to 3 years | Pleasure comes from bowel and bladder elimination and the constraints of toilet preparation. |
| Phallic | 3 years to 6 years | Pleasance comes from the genitals, and the conflict is with sexual desires for the opposite-sex parent. |
| Latency | 6 years to puberty | Sexual feelings are less of import. |
| Genital | Puberty and older | If prior stages have been properly reached, mature sexual orientation develops. |
In the first of Freud'due south proposed stages of psychosexual evolution, which begins at birth and lasts until about 18 months of age, the focus is on the rima oris. During this oral stage, the babe obtains sexual pleasure by sucking and drinking. Infants who receive either likewise trivial or likewise much gratification go fixated or locked in the oral stage, and are likely to regress to these points of fixation under stress, even equally adults. According to Freud, a kid who receives too footling oral gratification (e.1000., who was underfed or neglected) will become orally dependent as an developed and be likely to manipulate others to fulfill his or her needs rather than becoming contained. On the other hand, the child who was overfed or overly gratified volition resist growing upwardly and try to return to the prior state of dependency past interim helpless, demanding satisfaction from others, and acting in a needy fashion.
The anal stage, lasting from nearly xviii months to three years of historic period, is when children first experience psychological disharmonize. During this phase children desire to experience pleasance through bowel movements, but they are also being toilet trained to filibuster this gratification. Freud believed that if this toilet training was either too harsh or too lenient, children would go fixated in the anal stage and get likely to regress to this stage nether stress as adults. If the child received too little anal gratification (i.eastward., if the parents had been very harsh about toilet preparation), the developed personality will exist anal retentive—stingy, with a compulsive seeking of lodge and tidiness. On the other hand, if the parents had been too lenient, the anal expulsive personality results, characterized past a lack of self-control and a tendency toward messiness and carelessness.
The phallic stage, which lasts from age 3 to historic period six is when the penis (for boys) and clitoris (for girls) become the chief erogenous zone for sexual pleasance. During this phase, Freud believed that children develop a powerful merely unconscious allure for the opposite-sex parent, every bit well equally a desire to eliminate the same-sex parent equally a rival. Freud based his theory of sexual development in boys (the Oedipus complex) on the Greek mythological character Oedipus, who unknowingly killed his begetter and married his female parent, and then put his own eyes out when he learned what he had done. Freud argued that boys will normally eventually abandon their love of the mother, and instead identify with the father, also taking on the male parent's personality characteristics, but that boys who practise not successfully resolve the Oedipus complex will feel psychological bug later in life. Although it was not equally important in Freud'southward theorizing, in girls the phallic phase is often termed the Electra complex, afterwards the Greek character who avenged her begetter's murder past killing her mother. Freud believed that girls frequently experienced penis envy, the sense of deprivation supposedly experienced past girls because they do not accept a penis.
The latency stage is a period of relative calm that lasts from almost vi years to 12 years. During this time, Freud believed that sexual impulses were repressed, leading boys and girls to have little or no interest in members of the opposite sexual practice.
The fifth and last stage, the genital stage, begins about 12 years of historic period and lasts into adulthood. According to Freud, sexual impulses return during this time frame, and if evolution has proceeded usually to this bespeak, the child is able to movement into the development of mature romantic relationships. But if before problems have not been appropriately resolved, difficulties with establishing intimate love attachments are probable.
Freud'south Followers: The Neo-Freudians
Freudian theory was then popular that it led to a number of followers, including many of Freud's ain students, who adult, modified, and expanded his theories. Taken together, these approaches are known equally neo-Freudian theories. The neo-Freudian theories are theories based on Freudian principles that emphasize the role of the unconscious and early feel in shaping personality but place less evidence on sexuality equally the primary motivating forcefulness in personality and are more optimistic concerning the prospects for personality growth and alter in personality in adults.
Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was a follower of Freud's who adult his own estimation of Freudian theory. Adler proposed that the primary motivation in human personality was not sex or assailment, but rather the striving for superiority. According to Adler, we want to exist better than others and nosotros attain this goal by creating a unique and valuable life. Nosotros may endeavor to satisfy our need for superiority through our school or professional person accomplishments, or past our enjoyment of music, athletics, or other activities that seem important to us.
Adler believed that psychological disorders brainstorm in early childhood. He argued that children who are either overly nurtured or overly neglected by their parents are subsequently probable to develop an inferiority complex—a psychological state in which people feel that they are not living up to expectations, leading them to have low self-esteem, with a trend to effort to overcompensate for the negative feelings. People with an inferiority complex often attempt to demonstrate their superiority to others at all costs, fifty-fifty if it means humiliating, dominating, or alienating them. According to Adler, virtually psychological disorders result from misguided attempts to recoup for the inferiority complex in order meet the goal of superiority.
Carl Jung (1875-1961) was another educatee of Freud's who adult his own theories virtually personality. Jung agreed with Freud about the power of the unconscious but felt that Freud overemphasized the importance of sexuality. Jung argued that in add-on to the personal unconscious, there was also a collective unconscious, or a drove of shared bequeathed memories. Jung believed that the collective unconscious contains a variety of archetypes, or cross-culturally universal symbols, which explain the similarities among people in their emotional reactions to many stimuli. Important archetypes include the mother, the goddess, the hero, and the mandala or circumvolve, which Jung believed symbolized a desire for wholeness or unity. For Jung, the underlying motivation that guides successful personality is cocky-realization, or learning about and developing the self to the fullest possible extent.
Karen Horney (the last syllable of her last proper noun rhymes with "centre"; 1855-1952) was a German physician who applied Freudian theories to create a personality theory that she idea was more balanced betwixt men and women. Horney believed that parts of Freudian theory, and particularly the ideas of the Oedipus complex and penis envy, were biased confronting women. Horney argued that women's sense of inferiority was non due to their lack of a penis but rather to their dependency on men, an arroyo that the civilization made it difficult for them to break from. For Horney, the underlying motivation that guides personality development is the desire for security, the ability to develop appropriate and supportive relationships with others.
Another of import neo-Freudian was Erich Fromm (1900-1980). Fromm's focus was on the negative impact of technology, arguing that the increases in its employ have led people to feel increasingly isolated from others. Fromm believed that the independence that technology brings united states of america also creates the need to "escape from freedom," that is, to become closer to others.
Research Focus: How the Fear of Expiry Causes Aggressive Behaviour
Fromm believed that the chief human motivation was to escape the fright of death, and gimmicky research has shown how our concerns near dying can influence our behaviour. In this research, people take been made to confront their death by writing about it or otherwise beingness reminded of it, and effects on their behaviour are then observed. In 1 relevant study, McGregor and colleagues (1998) demonstrated that people who are provoked may exist particularly aggressive after they accept been reminded of the possibility of their ain death. The participants in the study had been selected, on the basis of prior reporting, to have either politically liberal or politically conservative views. When they arrived at the lab they were asked to write a short paragraph describing their opinion of politics in the U.s.a.. In addition, one-half of the participants (the mortality salient condition) were asked to "briefly depict the emotions that the thought of your ain decease arouses in you" and to "jot downwardly every bit specifically as yous can, what you recollect will happen to you equally you physically die, and once yous are physically dead." Participants in the exam command condition also thought about a negative event, merely not 1 associated with a fear of decease. They were instructed to "please briefly describe the emotions that the thought of your adjacent important exam arouses in y'all" and to "jot downward as specifically as you can, what yous think will happen to you every bit you physically take your next examination, and once you are physically taking your side by side examination."
And so the participants read the essay that had supposedly merely been written past another person. (The other person did not exist, just the participants didn't know this until the end of the experiment.) The essay that they read had been prepared by the experimenters to be very negative toward politically liberal views or to be very negative toward politically bourgeois views. Thus one-half of the participants were provoked by the other person by reading a statement that strongly conflicted with their own political beliefs, whereas the other half read an essay in which the other person's views supported their own (liberal or conservative) beliefs.
At this betoken the participants moved on to what they idea was a completely separate report in which they were to exist tasting and giving their impression of some foods. Furthermore, they were told that it was necessary for the participants in the research to administer the food samples to each other. At this point, the participants found out that the food they were going to be sampling was spicy hot sauce and that they were going to exist administering the sauce to the very person whose essay they had just read. In addition, the participants read some information virtually the other person that indicated that he very much disliked eating spicy food. Participants were given a taste of the hot sauce (it was really hot!) and then instructed to place a quantity of information technology into a cup for the other person to sample. Furthermore, they were told that the other person would have to eat all the sauce.
As y'all can see in Figure 12.9, "Assailment as a Function of Mortality Salience and Provocation," McGregor and colleagues found that the participants who had not been reminded of their own death, even if they had been insulted by the partner, did not retaliate by giving him a lot of hot sauce to swallow. On the other mitt, the participants who were both provoked by the other person and who had too been reminded of their own death administered significantly more than hot sauce than did the participants in the other three conditions. McGregor and colleagues (1998) argued that thinking about one'southward ain death creates a strong concern with maintaining one's 1 cherished worldviews (in this case our political behavior). When we are concerned about dying we become more motivated to defend these important beliefs from the challenges made by others, in this case past aggressing through the hot sauce.
Strengths and Limitations of Freudian and Neo-Freudian Approaches
Freud has probably exerted a greater bear on on the public's understanding of personality than any other thinker, and he has likewise in large part divers the field of psychology. Although Freudian psychologists no longer talk most oral, anal, or genital fixations, they practise continue to believe that our childhood experiences and unconscious motivations shape our personalities and our attachments with others, and they notwithstanding make use of psychodynamic concepts when they conduct psychological therapy.
Yet, Freud's theories, as well as those of the neo-Freudians, accept in many cases failed to laissez passer the test of empiricism, and as a result they are less influential at present than they have been in the past (Crews, 1998). The problems are, first, that information technology has proved to exist difficult to rigorously exam Freudian theory because the predictions that it makes (particularly those regarding defence mechanisms) are often vague and unfalsifiable and, 2nd, that the aspects of the theory that can be tested oftentimes have not received much empirical support.
Equally examples, although Freud claimed that children exposed to overly harsh toilet grooming would become fixated in the anal stage and thus be prone to excessive neatness, stinginess, and stubbornness in adulthood, research has establish few reliable associations between toilet preparation practices and adult personality (Fisher & Greenberg, 1996). And since the fourth dimension of Freud, the need to repress sexual desires would seem to accept become much less necessary every bit societies have tolerated a wider variety of sexual practices. And yet the psychological disorders that Freud idea nosotros caused past this repression accept not decreased.
At that place is as well picayune scientific support for most of the Freudian defence mechanisms. For case, studies have failed to yield prove for the being of repression. People who are exposed to traumatic experiences in state of war take been found to think their traumas only too well (Kihlstrom, 1997). Although we may attempt to push data that is anxiety-arousing into our unconscious, this often has the ironic outcome of making us think most the information even more strongly than if we hadn't tried to repress information technology (Newman, Duff, & Baumeister, 1997). It is truthful that children remember little of their childhood experiences, but this seems to be true of both negative besides as positive experiences, is true for animals as well, and probably is improve explained in terms of the brain'due south inability to course long-term memories than in terms of repression. On the other hand, Freud's important thought that expressing or talking through one's difficulties can be psychologically helpful has been supported in electric current inquiry (Baddeley & Pennebaker, 2009) and has become a mainstay of psychological therapy.
A item trouble for testing Freudian theories is that almost anything that conflicts with a prediction based in Freudian theory can be explained away in terms of the apply of a defence mechanism. A man who expresses a lot of acrimony toward his father may be seen via Freudian theory to be experiencing the Oedipus complex, which includes conflict with the father. But a man who expresses no anger at all toward the father also may be seen as experiencing the Oedipus complex past repressing the anger. Considering Freud hypothesized that either was possible, only did not specify when repression would or would not occur, the theory is hard to falsify.
In terms of the important role of the unconscious, Freud seems to take been at least in part correct. More than and more research demonstrates that a large function of everyday behaviour is driven past processes that are exterior our witting awareness (Kihlstrom, 1987). And even so, although our unconscious motivations influence every aspect of our learning and behaviour, Freud probably overestimated the extent to which these unconscious motivations are primarily sexual and aggressive.
Taken together, it is fair to say that Freudian theory, like virtually psychological theories, was non entirely correct and that it has had to be modified over fourth dimension every bit the results of new studies have get bachelor. But the cardinal ideas about personality that Freud proposed, as well as the use of talk therapy as an essential component of therapy, are withal still a major part of psychology and are used by clinical psychologists every day.
Focusing on the Self: Humanism and Self-Actualization
Psychoanalytic models of personality were complemented during the 1950s and 1960s by the theories of humanistic psychologists, an approach to psychology that embraces the notions of self-esteem, self-actualization, and free will. In contrast to the proponents of psychoanalysis, humanists embraced the notion of costless will. Arguing that people are complimentary to choose their own lives and make their own decisions, humanistic psychologists focused on the underlying motivations that they believed drove personality, focusing on the nature of the self-concept, the ready of beliefs well-nigh who we are, and self-esteem, our positive feelings about the self.
One of the almost important humanists, Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), conceptualized personality in terms of a pyramid-shaped bureaucracy of motives, also called the hierarchy of needs, (Figure 12.10 "Maslow'south Hierarchy of Needs"). At the base of the pyramid are the lowest-level motivations, including hunger and thirst, and rubber and belongingness. Maslow argued that simply when people are able to come across the lower-level needs are they able to move on to reach the higher-level needs of self-esteem, and somewhen self-actualization, which is the motivation to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent.
Maslow studied how successful people, including Albert Einstein, Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King Jr., Helen Keller, and Mahatma Gandhi, had been able to lead such successful and productive lives. Maslow (1970) believed that self-actualized people are artistic, spontaneous, and loving of themselves and others. They tend to have a few deep friendships rather than many superficial ones, and are more often than not individual. He felt that these individuals do non demand to conform to the opinions of others because they are very confident and thus free to express unpopular opinions. Self-actualized people are also likely to have summit experiences, or transcendent moments of repose accompanied by a strong sense of connectedness with others.
Maybe the best-known humanistic theorist is Carl Rogers (1902-1987). Rogers was positive virtually man nature, viewing people as primarily moral and helpful to others, and believed that we tin can attain our full potential for emotional fulfilment if the self-concept is characterized past unconditional positive regard—a set of behaviours including being 18-carat, open up to experience, transparent, able to listen to others, and self-disclosing and empathic. When we care for ourselves or others with unconditional positive regard, we express understanding and support, even while we may acknowledge failings. Unconditional positive regard allows us to admit our fears and failures, to drib our pretenses, and nonetheless at the same time to experience completely accustomed for what we are. The principle of unconditional positive regard has get a foundation of psychological therapy; therapists who use it in their practice are more effective than those who do not (Prochaska & Norcross, 2007; Yalom, 1995).
Although there are critiques of the humanistic psychologists (e.yard., that Maslow focused on historically productive rather than destructive personalities in his inquiry and thus drew overly optimistic conclusions about the capacity of people to practise good), the ideas of humanism are so powerful and optimistic that they have continued to influence both everyday experiences and psychology. Today the positive psychology movement argues for many of these ideas, and research has documented the extent to which thinking positively and openly has important positive consequences for our relationships, our life satisfaction, and our psychological and concrete health (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
Enquiry Focus: Self-Discrepancies, Anxiety, and Depression
Tory Higgins and his colleagues (Higgins, Bond, Klein, & Strauman, 1986; Strauman & Higgins, 1988) have studied how unlike aspects of the self-concept relate to personality characteristics. These researchers focused on the types of emotional distress that nosotros might feel as a upshot of how we are currently evaluating our cocky-concept. Higgins proposes that the emotions we experience are determined both by our perceptions of how well our ain behaviours meet up to the standards and goals we accept provided ourselves (our internal standards) and by our perceptions of how others think about us (our external standards). Furthermore, Higgins argues that different types of self-discrepancies lead to different types of negative emotions.
In one of Higgins's experiments (Higgins, Bail, Klein, & Strauman, 1986), participants were showtime asked to describe themselves using a cocky-study measure out. The participants listed 10 thoughts that they thought described the kind of person they actually are; this is the actual self-concept. Then, participants also listed 10 thoughts that they thought described the type of person they would ideally like to be (the ideal self-concept) as well as 10 thoughts describing the way that someone else — for instance, a parent — thinks they ought to exist (the ought cocky-concept).
Higgins then divided his participants into two groups. Those with low self-concept discrepancies were those who listed similar traits on all three lists. Their ideal, ought, and actual self-concepts were all pretty similar and and so they were not considered to be vulnerable to threats to their cocky-concept. The other half of the participants, those with loftier self-concept discrepancies, were those for whom the traits listed on the ideal and ought lists were very different from those listed on the actual self list. These participants were expected to be vulnerable to threats to the self-concept.
And so, at a later enquiry session, Higgins first asked people to limited their current emotions, including those related to sadness and anxiety. After obtaining this baseline mensurate, Higgins activated either platonic or ought discrepancies for the participants. Participants in the ideal self-discrepancy priming condition were asked to think about and discuss their own and their parents' hopes and goals for them. Participants in the ought self-priming condition listed their own and their parents' beliefs concerning their duty and obligations. Then all participants once again indicated their current emotions.
Equally you lot can come across in Figure 12.eleven, "Enquiry Results," for low self-concept discrepancy participants, thinking most their platonic or ought selves did not much alter their emotions. For loftier self-concept discrepancy participants, all the same, priming the ideal cocky-concept increased their sadness and dejection, whereas priming the ought cocky-concept increased their anxiety and agitation. These results are consistent with the thought that discrepancies between the ideal and the actual self lead us to feel sadness, dissatisfaction, and other depression-related emotions, whereas discrepancies between the actual and ought cocky are more probable to lead to fear, worry, tension, and other anxiety-related emotions.
One of the critical aspects of Higgins'south approach is that, as is our personality, our feelings are influenced both by our own behaviour and by our expectations of how other people view us. This makes it clear that even though you might not intendance that much about achieving in schoolhouse, your failure to exercise well may yet produce negative emotions because yous realize that your parents do think it is important.
Key Takeaways
- One of the most of import psychological approaches to understanding personality is based on the psychodynamic approach to personality adult by Sigmund Freud.
- For Freud the heed was like an iceberg, with the many motivations of the unconscious being much larger, just besides out of sight, in comparison to the consciousness of which we are aware.
- Freud proposed that the listen is divided into 3 components: id, ego, and superego, and that the interactions and conflicts amidst the components create personality.
- Freud proposed that nosotros use defence mechanisms to cope with anxiety and maintain a positive self-paradigm.
- Freud argued that personality is adult through a series of psychosexual stages, each focusing on pleasure from a different function of the trunk.
- The neo-Freudian theorists, including Adler, Jung, Horney, and Fromm, emphasized the function of the unconscious and early on experience in shaping personality, just placed less evidence on sexuality as the primary motivating strength in personality.
- Psychoanalytic and behavioural models of personality were complemented during the 1950s and 1960s past the theories of humanistic psychologists, including Maslow and Rogers.
Exercises and Critical Thinking
- Based on your agreement of psychodynamic theories, how would you analyze your own personality? Are in that location aspects of the theory that might aid you explain your own strengths and weaknesses?
- Based on your understanding of humanistic theories, how would you endeavor to change your behaviour to ameliorate meet the underlying motivations of security, acceptance, and self-realization?
- Consider your own self-concept discrepancies. Do you have an bodily-ideal or actual-ought discrepancy? Which ane is more important for you, and why?
References
Baddeley, J. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2009). Expressive writing. In W. T. O'Donohue & J. E. Fisher (Eds.),General principles and empirically supported techniques of cognitive behavior therapy (pp. 295–299). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Crews, F. C. (1998).Unauthorized Freud: Doubters confront a fable. New York, NY: Viking Press.
Dolnick, Eastward. (1998).Madness on the couch: Blaming the victim in the heyday of psychoanalysis. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Fisher, S., & Greenberg, R. P. (1996).Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing the theories and therapy. Oxford, England: John Wiley & Sons.
Freud, S. (1923/1949).The ego and the id. London, England: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1923)
Higgins, E. T., Bond, R. N., Klein, R., & Strauman, T. (1986). Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: How magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence impact.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(1), five–15.
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987). The cognitive unconscious.Science, 237(4821), 1445–1452.
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1997). Memory, abuse, and scientific discipline.American Psychologist, 52(9), 994–995.
Maslow, Abraham (1970).Motivation and personality (2d ed.). New York, NY: Harper.
McGregor, H. A., Lieberman, J. D., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Arndt, J., Simon, L.,…Pyszczynski, T. (1998). Terror direction and assailment: Testify that bloodshed salience motivates aggression against worldview-threatening others.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 590–605.
Newman, L. S., Duff, G. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1997). A new look at defensive project: Thought suppression, accessibility, and biased person perception.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(5), 980–1001.
Prochaska, J. O., & Norcross, J. C. (2007).Systems of psychotherapy: A transtheoretical analysis (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Roudinesco, Eastward. (2003).Why psychoanalysis? New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Seligman, Thousand. Eastward. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, Grand. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction.American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–xiv.
Strauman, T. J., & Higgins, East. T. (1988). Self-discrepancies every bit predictors of vulnerability to distinct syndromes of chronic emotional distress.Periodical of Personality, 56(4), 685–707.
Taylor, Due east. (2009).The mystery of personality: A history of psychodynamic theories. New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media.
Yalom, I. (1995). Introduction. In C. Rogers,A way of existence. (1980). New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.
Prototype Attributions
Figure 12.9: Adapted from McGregor, et al., 1998.
Figure 12.11: Adapted from Higgins, Bond, Klein, & Strauman, 1986.
Long Description
| Provocation | Morality Salience | Control status |
|---|---|---|
| No | xv grams of hot sauce | 17 grams of hot sauce |
| Aye | 26 grams of hot sauce | eleven grams of hot sauce |
[Render to Figure 12.9]
| Physiological (Base) | Demand to satisfy hunger and thirst. |
| Condom | Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to experience rubber, secure, and stable. |
| Love/belonging | Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and breach. |
| Esteem | Demand for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others. |
| Self-actualization (Top) | Need to live up to one's fullest and unique potential. |
[Return to Effigy 12.ten]
| Change in rated emotion | ||
|---|---|---|
| Blues | Agitation | |
| High cocky-concept discrepancy | iii.i | 0.8 |
| Low self-concept discrepancy | negative i.3 | 0.nine |
| Change in rated emotion | ||
|---|---|---|
| Dejection | Agitation | |
| High self-concept discrepancy | 0.8 | four.ix |
| Depression self-concept discrepancy | 0.3 | negative ii.4 |
[Render to Figure 12.eleven]
Source: https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/11-2-the-origins-of-personality/#:~:text=Freud%20proposed%20that%20the%20mind,Freud%2C%201923%2F1949).
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